Table 1 Characteristics of included studies, that measured stiffness with elastography

LBP

CON

Chan et al., 2012 [43],

China

n = 24 (all M)

12 LBP: 36.6 ± 2.9 y

12 CON: 25.2 ± 1.1 y

Chronic LBP

STE (MF – L4) [kPa]:

Resting

Standing

Forward stoop 25°

Forward stoop 45°

40.2 ± 5.0

67.2 ± 9.3*

101.2 ± 9.4*

127.1 ± 9.8*

36.9 ± 4.8

54.2 ± 7.0

93.9 ± 14.0

108.1 ± 17.2

Individuals with LBP have higher MF stiffness in standing and stooping. No differences were observed in resting stiffness.

Masaki et al., 2017 [32],

Japan

n = 32

9 LBP (1 M, 8 F):

44.7 ± 13.0 y

23 CON (8 M, 15 F):

34.7 ± 10.2 y

Chronic LBP

SWE [kPa]:

ES: 7 cm lateral to L3

MF: lateral to L4

3.7 ± 1.1

5.6 ± 1.1*

3.5 ± 1.1

4.8 ± 0.8

Individuals with LBP have higher MF resting stiffness. No differences were observed for ES stiffness.

Murillo et al., 2019 [44],

United Kingdom

n = 30

15 LBP (7 M, 8 F):

29.4 ± 10.8 y

15 CON (8 M, 7 F):

26.7 ± 5.4 y

Chronic LBP

SWE [kPa]:

SMF: L3 under TLF

DMF: L3 over laminae

A-SMF

10.2 ± 4.2*

14.4 ± 2.6

N/A

6.8 ± 1.7

15.4 ± 2.8

N/A

Individuals with LBP have higher resting stiffness of SMF, but not DMF. No differences were observed for SMF stiffness during contraction.

Koppenhaver et al., 2020 [31],

USA

n = 120

60 LBP (36 M, 24 F):

32.2 ± 7.3 y

60 CON (26 M, 34 F):

31.0 ± 8.0 y

Not defined

SWE [kPa]:

ES: symptomatic level

MF: symptomatic level or L4/L5 facet joint

A-MF

6.4 ± 3.4*

6.8 ± 3.2*

20.8 ± 10.8

4.5 ± 1.7

5.7 ± 2.0

22.6 ± 9.8

Individuals with LBP have higher resting ES and MF stiffness. No differences were observed for MF stiffness during contraction.

Pinto et al., 2022 [45],

China

n = 151

78 LBP (32 M, 46 F):

46.0 y

73 CON (26 M, 52 F):

48.0 y

Chronic LBP

SWE [kPa]:

MF: facet L4/L5

MF: facet L5/S1

43.3 ± 21.5

43.5 ± 21.2

41.3 ± 18.7

41.9 ± 19.4

No differences were observed for resting SMF stiffness.