Table 1 Cytokines and molecules involved in muscle and primer sequences used for quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis
Gene | Full name | Primer Sequences | Role | Function in Muscle |
|---|---|---|---|---|
TNF | Tumor Necrosis Factor | F: 5’-GAGGCCAAGCCCTGGTATG-3’ R: 5’-CGGGCCGATTGATCTCAGC-3’ | Pro-inflammatory cytokine (polypeptide cytokine) | TNF disrupts the differentiation process and can promote catabolism in mature cells which is mediated by reactive oxygen species and nuclear factor-κB for muscle wasting and weakness in inflammatory disease. TNF promotes muscle adaptation and fast muscle fiber expression. |
IL-1β | Interleukin 1 Beta | F: 5’-AGCTACGAATCTCCGACCAC-3’ R: 5’-CGTTATCCCATGTGTCGAAGAA-3’ | Pro-inflammatory cytokine | IL-1β is inhibitory towards muscle differentiation. Role in early phases of myogenesis and reduction of fibrosis |
IL-15 | Interleukin 15 |  F: 5’-GCCATAGCCAGCTCTTCTTCA-3’ R: 5’-CTGCACTGAAACAGCCCAAA-3’ | Pleiotropic cytokine | As an anabolic factor in muscle growth, IL-15 induces an accumulation of myosin heavy chain (MHC) protein in differentiated myotubes. Play a role in muscle–adipose tissue interaction |
TGF-β1 | Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 |  F: 5’-GGCCAGATCCTGTCCAAGC-3’ R: 5’-GTGGGTTTCCACCATTAGCAC-3’ | Anti-inflammatory mediator | TGF-β isoforms are cytokines involved in a variety of cellular processes, including myofiber repair and regulation of connective tissue formation. Promotes atrophy/slow-to-fast transformation and induces differentiation of myocytes into myofibroblasts |