Table 1 Reference standards for painful lumbosacral spine structures

Intervertebral disc

Provocation discography with control disc verification

[171]

Facet joint

Double block procedure in joint space or at nerve supply

[148]

Sacroiliac joint

Double block procedure in joint space

[172]

Nerve root involvement

Magnetic resonance imaging, myelography, or surgical findings with or without clinical findings

[173]

Spinal stenosis

Expert opinion based on radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging or surgical findings with or without clinical findings

[75, 174]

Spondylolisthesis

Sagittal plane rotation or translation movement on functional radiograph or translation on static radiograph

[152, 155]

Fracture

Radiographs, computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging

[155]

Myofascial structures

None available.

Peripheral nerve

None available.

Central sensitization

Expert consensus