Table 2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria for research participants

Aged from 18 years old;

Low back pain for more than 3 months;

Disability level ≥ 4 points on the Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ);

Ability to move independently with or without assistance;

Ability to understand Portuguese enough to be able to fill in the questionnaires.

The main area of pain other than the lumbar spine (eg, nerve root compression or herniated disc with radicular pain, lateral or central stenosis);

Surgery performed on the lumbar spine;

Surgery performed on the lower limbs, or abdominal region less than 6 months ago;

Performing an invasive procedure for pain relief (eg, epidural injection, rhizotomy) in the last 3 months;

Diagnosis of inflammatory rheumatologic diseases, progressive neurological disease, or viral diseases as the primary cause of pain;

Scoliosis as the primary cause of pain;

Unstable heart conditions;

Presence of red flags such as malignancy/cancer, acute trauma (less than 6 months), infection, spinal cord/cauda equina compression.