Table 2 Clinical, radiographic and treatment parameters for canine and human anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture
From: Canine ACL rupture: a spontaneous large animal model of human ACL rupture
Parameter | Canine ACL rupture | Human ACL rupture |
|---|---|---|
Diagnosis | Clinical and radiographic | Clinical and radiographic |
Symptoms | Knee pain and instability | Knee pain and instability |
Screening test | Anterior drawer, tibial compression | Anterior drawer, Lachman, pivot-shift |
Radiographic effusion | ||
 Before diagnosis | Yes | No |
 At diagnosis | Yes | Yes |
 After diagnosis | Yes | Yes |
Radiographic OA | ||
 Before diagnosis | Typical | Atypical |
 At diagnosis | Typical | Atypical |
 After diagnosis | Yes | Frequently at long-term follow-up |
Detection of ACL fiber rupture and secondary signs | MR imaging | MR imaging |
Prediction of disease progression from incomplete to complete ACL rupture | Knee radiography | None |
Arthroscopic ligament findings | Fiber rupture in both ACL bundles and PCL | Fiber rupture in both ACL bundles |
Other arthroscopic findings | Synovitis, articular cartilage fibrillation and softening, meniscal tear, periarticular osteophytes | Synovitis, articular cartilage fibrillation and softening, meniscal tear |
Histological changes in the ACL | Loss of collagen fibers and fiber crimp, chondroid transformation of ligament fibroblasts | Loss of collagen fibers and fiber crimp, chondroid transformation of ligament fibroblasts |
Conservative treatments | Physiotherapy, activity modification, knee brace occasionally | Physiotherapy, activity modification, knee brace |
Surgical treatments | Stabilization by tibial osteotomy or extracapsular suture | Stabilization by ACL reconstruction with intraarticular graft. Repair of proximal ACL avulsion, extraarticular augmentationa |