Table 2 Characteristics of included studies table

Capra et al., 2011 [16]

Italy

Cross-sectional observational study

Sciatica with or without lumbar pain

Inclusion: 16–85 years, acute or recurrent sciatica (located distal to the knee), undergone MRI.

Exclusion: diabetes, neoplasia, spinal cord disease, workers compensation, prior surgery, peripheral neuropathy, retroperitoneal pathology.

*n = 2352 (Female: n = 1120, Male: n = 1232)

Mean (*SD) age: 49.22 (14.68)

Straight leg raise

*MRI

Gudala et al., 2017 [30]

India

Cross-sectional observational study

*CLBP with or without leg pain

Inclusion: > 18, CLBP > 3 months, understand Hindi.

Exclusion: diabetes, cancer, chronic pain conditions, pregnant, incomplete data.

n = 215 (Female: n = 104, Male: n = 111)

Mean (SD) age: 46.6 (13.9)

*S-DN4, ID Pain, painDETECT questionnaire, *S-LANSS

Physician opinion

Lin et al., 2017 [17]

Taiwan

Cross-sectional observational study

Lumbar lateral stenosis involving L5 nerve root

Inclusion: back pain with or without leg pain lasting > 3 months, corresponding lesion on MRI (central spinal stenosis, lateral recess stenosis, foraminal stenosis, segmental instability.

Exclusion: spinal tumour/infection, Cauda equina syndrome, refused index test, Visual analogue scale < 2, bilateral L5 symptoms. L4/5 foraminal stenosis or L5/S1 central stenosis and those who have pathology not involving the L4/5 or L5/S1 level.

n = 60

(Female: n = 38, Male: n = 22)

Mean (SD) age: 61.37 (Nil reported)

*SQST

MRI: grade 3 lateral stenosis

Poiraudeau et al., 2001 [31]

France

Cross-sectional observational study

Sciatica associated with disc herniation

Inclusion: Patients hospitalised for acute or chronic sciatica of mechanical origin. Sciatica defined as: “lumbosacral and lower limb pain, associated or not with paraesthesias and with one of the following conditions: radicular pain below the knee after an L5 or S1 nerve root dermatome; and radicular pain above the knee associated with neurological impairment reflex abolition, muscular weakness or sensory defects in the corresponding radicular area).” (Poiraudeau et al., 2001).

Exclusion criteria: LBP without sciatica, radicular pain in a dermatome other than L5 and or S1, systemic lumboradicular pain tumour, infectious or inflammatory disease, prior lumbar surgery, uncontrolled psychiatric disorder.

n = 78

(Female: n = 45, Male: n = 33)

Mean (SD) age: 50 (16)

Bell’s test,

*HE test,

Lasegue signs,

Crossed Lasegue sign

MRI, CT, saccoradiculography

Scholz et al., 2009 [12]

USA

Cross-sectional observational study

NP in LBP (radicular)

Inclusion: CLBP, pain duration ≥3 months, Visual analogue scale > 6, age ≥ 18 .

Exclusion criteria: severe medical or psychiatric illness, painful disorder or neurological disease that might have interfered with the pain assessment, local infection

n = 138

(Female: n = 78, Male: n = 60)

Mean (SD) age:

45 (Nil reported)

* StEP tool

Independent physician clinical diagnosis

Smart et al., 2012 [18]

Ireland

Cross-sectional observational study

Peripheral NP in patients with or without leg pain

Inclusion: >  18, LBP with or without leg pain, those with a dominance of peripheral NP (deemed through a Delphi consensus list).

Exclusion: Patients with a history of diabetes or central nervous system injury, pregnancy or non-musculoskeletal LBP

n: 102

(Female: n = 53, Male: n = 49)

Mean (SD) age:

44 (13.1)

Cluster of subjective/

objective indicators

Clinical judgement

Trainor et al., 2011 [32]

England

Cross-sectional observational study

Pilot study

Upper/mid lumbar nerve root compression

Inclusion: lumbosacral radicular pain, defined as: pain radiating unilateral/bilateral distal to gluteal crease, pain distribution in dermatome area/1 or 2 levels above/below

Exclusion: cervical/thoracic pain, Red flags, spinal pathology or systemic illness, recent quads injury or unable to lie in test position.

n: 16

(Female: n = 7, Male: n = 9)

Mean (SD) age: 49 (Nil reported)

Slump knee bend

MRI

Urban et al., 2015 [33]

Canada

Cross-sectional observational study

NP in lower limb

Inclusion: LBP with or without leg pain, 25 years or >, English speaking, suitable for complete neuro exam, conservatively managed.

Exclusion: Previous back surgery, systemic illness or central condition.

n: 21

(Female: n = n/a, Male: n = n/a)

Mean (SD) age:

Nil reported

Slump

Standard clinical Assessment

Verwoerd et al., 2014 [34]

Netherlands

Cross-sectional observational study

Lumbosacral nerve root compression

Inclusion: 18–65 age, diagnosed, by neurologist, “incapacitating lumbosacral radicular syndrome, 6–12 weeks.

Exclusion: Cauda equina, unable to resist against gravity muscle strength, previous spinae surgery, sever comorbidity, pregnancy, similar episode in last 12 months.

n: 395

(Female: n = 147, Male: n = 248)

Mean (SD) age: 42.8 (10)

History taking

MRI

Vroomen et al., 2002 [19]

Netherlands

Cross-sectional observational study

Lumbosacral nerve root compression

Inclusion: pain that warrants bed rest for 14 days, new onset LBLP (distal to gluteal crease).

Exclusion: spinal surgery, pregnancy, severe comorbidity, contraindication to MRI.

n: 274

(Female: n = 139, Male: n = 135)

Mean (SD) age: 46 (Nil reported)

History and Physical examination

MRI

Walsh et al., 2009 [14]

Ireland

Cross-sectional observational study

LBLP

Inclusion: unilateral LBLP, 18–70 age, speaks English.

Exclusion: absence of unilateral LBLP, serious pathology, spinal surgery or neurological disease, unbale to tolerate testing positions.

n: 45

(Female: n = 23, Male n = 22)

Mean (SD) age: 46 (11)

Nerve palpation

SLR + slump