Table 1 Incidence rate and risk factors in previous literature
Authors | Year | Incidence (cases/total population) | Risk factors | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Kou et al. [27] | 2002 | NA | Multilevel procedure | 0.037 |
Anno et al. [28] | 2019 | 0.42% (14/3371) | Presence of preoperative coagulopathy | < 0.001 |
| Â | Â | Cervical: 0.47% (4/856) | Age | NA |
| Â | Â | Thoracic: 0.60% (2/332) | Multilevel procedure | NA |
| Â | Â | Lumbar: 0.37% (8/2183) | Scar tissue due to previous spinal surgery | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Heparinization | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Vessel damage | NA |
Kebaish et al. [29] | 2004 | 0.2% | NA | NA |
Yamada et al. [30] | 2015 | 0.39% (32/8250) | ≥ 50 mmHg increase in blood pressure after extubation | 0.03 |
| Â | Â | Â | Obesity | 0.018 |
Agnelli et al. [31] | 1999 | 0% (0/15) | Â | Â |
Gerlach et al. [32] | 2004 | 0.7% (13/1954) | Thrombocytopenia | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Anticoagulant use | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Antiplatelet agent use | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Alcohol consumption | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Coagulopathy | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Malignancy | NA |
Uribe et al. [33] | 2003 | 0.22% (9/4018) | Thrombocytopenia | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Coagulation factor deficiency | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Medications that predispose to bleeding | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Previous surgery with attendant scarring at the site of epidural hematoma | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Diabetes | Â |
Kim et al. [34] | 2019 | 23.6% (94/304; diagnosed by MRI) | Anticoagulant use | < 0.001 |
| Â | Â | 1.97% (6/304; hematoma evacuation surgery) | Female sex | 0.012 |
|  |  |  | Old age (>  70 years) | 0.025 |
| Â | Â | Â | Use of intraoperative water infusion pump | 0.003 |
| Â | Â | Â | Type of operation | 0.01 |
Ohba et al. [35] | 2017 | 0.468% (6/1282) | Hypertension | NA |
|  |  |  | Age > 60 years | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Anticoagulant use | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Previous spine surgery | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Multilevel procedure | NA |
|  |  |  | Blood loss > 1 L | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Infections | NA |
Goldstein et al. [36] | 2013 | 1.5% (8/529) | Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) | 0.24 |
| Â | Â | Â | Increase in Charlson Comorbidity Index | 0.003 |
Yi et al. [37] | 2006 | 0.28% (9/3270) | Coagulopathy | Â |
| Â | Â | Â | Anticoagulant use | Â |
| Â | Â | Â | Cancer | Â |
Thiele et al. [38] | 2008 | NA | Predisposed bleeding | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Prolonged surgical time | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Old age | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Trauma | NA |
Knusel et al. [39] | 2019 | 0.27% (206/75,878) | Old age | NA |
|  |  |  | Obesity (BMI > 35) | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Transfusion | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Multilevel procedure | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Invasive procedure | NA |
| Â | Â | Â | Microscope use | NA |