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Table 1 Selected characteristics of the cross-sectional articles included in the review (n = 22)a

From: The association between body fat and musculoskeletal pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Study / country / reference

Sample size, n

Age, y

BMI, kg/m2

Body composition assessment

Parameter investigated

Body composition (Case, control)

Effect size (CI)

Cohen’s d

OR (CI)

Included in the meta-analyses

Widespread pain (≥ 5 sites)

 Pan, Australia [35] d

336 widespread pain, 137no pain

Baseline 63.3 (7.7) widespread pain, 62.2 (7.2) no pain

Baseline 28.8 (5.3) widespread pain, 26.2 (3.9) no pain

DXA

Total fat mass

30.0 (9.5) kg, 25.0 (7.1) kg

0.56 (0.36–0.76)

N/A

Yes

 Yoo, Republic of Korea [36]

229 widespread pain, 618 no pain

60.8 (8.6)

24.3 (3.2)

DXA

 

19.1 (6.1) kg, 15.9 (7.5) kg

0.45 (0.29–0.60)

N/A

Yes

Multi-site pain (3 sites)

 Brady, Australia [18]

133 (104 women), 42 multi-site pain 27 no pain

47.9 (45.0, 50.7)c multi-site pain

46.3 (42.8, 50.0) no pain

36.6 (34.1, 39.2)c multi-site pain

28.4 (25.2, 31.6) no pain

DXA

FMI

16.2 (14.5–17.9) kg/m2 multi-site pain, 11.0 (8.8–13.1) kg/m2 no pain

N/A

N/A

No

Temporomandibular joint pain

 Jordani, Brazil [44]

299 (229 women), 159 pain, 70 no pain

37.7 (12.2) pain

35.9 (13.6) no pain

Not stated

BIA

Body fat percentage

N/A

N/A

1.58 (0.72–3.48)

No

Neck pain

 Yalcinkaya, Turkey [45]

160 (80 women), 40 case, 40 control

44.6 (10.2) case

40.8 (8.0) control

28.4 (4.3) case

28.3 (3.9) control

BIA

Body fat percentage

Case

Women: 46.6 (9.6) %

Men: 37.6 (6.0) %

Control

Women: 46.0 (9.8) %

Men: 34.2 (6.0) %

Women

0.06 (− 0.38–0.50)

Men

0.57 (0.11–1.01)

N/A

No

Neck and shoulder pain

 Iizuka, Japan [37]e

273 (179 women)

64.3 (13.2)

23.4 (2.9)

BIA

Body fat percentage

N/A

N/A

0.98 (0.94–1.03)

No

Low-back pain

 

 Hodselmans, Netherlands [51]

101 (47 women)

39.2 (9.6)

Not stated

Skin fold

Body fat percentage

30.4 (8.2) %, 26.4 (6.1) %

0.55 (0.27–0.83)

N/A

Yes

 Spyropoulos, Greece [52]

60 (all women), 30 case,

30 control

41.7 (7.3) case

42.2 (7.3) control

27.1 (3.4) case

25.3 (3.1) control

Skin fold

34.7 (5.1) %, 31.3 (5.2) %

0.66 (0.13–1.17)

N/A

Yes

 Iizuka, Japan [37]e

273 (179 women)

64.3 (13.2)

23.4 (2.9)

BIA

N/A

N/A

0.97 (0.93–1.02)

Yes

 Dario, Spain [47]

687 (all women), 313 pain, 374 no pain

53.6 (7.4) pain

52.2 (7.4) no pain

27.7 (5.2) pain

26.8 (4.6) no pain

BIA

Body fat percentage

N/A

N/A

1.15 (1.01–1.32)

Yes

 Toda, Japan [48]

330 (206 women), 203 case

127 control

Men: 55.6 (8.8) case, 57.7 (9.8) control

Women: 60.0 (9.2) case, 57.6 (8.1) control

Men: 23.9 (2.4) case, 23.9 (3.1) control

Women:22.7 (3.4) case, 22.7 (3.3) control

BIA

Women 29.7 (6.8) %, 27.9 (6.7) %

Men 23.8 (5.2) %, 22.3 (6.1) %

Women 0.27 (−0.01–0.54)

Men 0.27 (− 0.10–0.64)

N/A

N/A

Yes

 Sakai, Japan [43]

660 (311 women), 100 case, 560 control

74.4 (6.0) case, 73.2 (7.6) control

23.6 (3.2) case, 24.2 (3.5) control

DXA

Women: 41.1 (4.1) %, 34.3 (8.8) %

Men: 35.8 (6.7) %, 27.7 (7.6) %

Women: 0.83 (0.09–1.54)

Men: 1.08 (0.76–1.40)

N/A

N/A

Yes

 Celan, Slovenia [46]

112 (all men), 76 pain 36 no pain

44.2 (5.6), range 31–56

27.7 pain, 27.9 no pain

BIA

Case

26.4%

Control

25.5%

N/A

N/A

No

 Urquhart, Australia [20]

135 (113 women), 29 high pain, 106 no or low pain

47.4 (9.0) range 25–62

32.6 (8.7), range 18–55

DXA

Total fat mass

N/A

N/A

Pain intensity

1.19 (1.04–1.38)

Disability

1.41 (1.20–1.67)

No

 Chou, Australia [38]

820 (all men), 124 high pain, 696 no or low pain

62.9 (14.0) high pain

58.1 (17.1) no or low pain

28.6 (4.5) high pain

27.2 (4.1) no or low pain

DXA

Total fat mass

High pain disability / intensity 25.9 (7.9) kg

No or low disability / intensity 23.0 (8.6) kg

0.34 (0.15–0.53)

N/A

No

Knee pain

 Ozer Kaya, Turkey [49]

149 (all women), 52 cases, 97 controls

42.6 (4.1) case

41.7 (4.2) control

30.5 (5.3) case

29.4 (4.6) control

BIA

Body fat percentage

39.3 (7.9) %, 38.1 (7.7) %

0.15 (−0.19–0.49)

N/A

Yes

 Scott, Australia [39]

709 (357 women), 311 pain, 398 no pain

Men: 62.0 (7.2) pain, 63 (7.3) no pain

Women: 61.7 (7.5) pain, 62.0 (7.0) no pain

Men: 28.2 (3.8) pain

27.0 (3.5) no pain

Women: 28.2 (5.6) pain, 27.0 (4.4) no pain

DXA

Women 40.1 (5.5%, 39.0 (5.0) %

Men 28.0 (5.2) %, 27.2 (4.4) %

Women 0.21 (0.00–0.42)

Men 0.17 (− 0.04–0.38)

N/A

N/A

Yes

 Sutbeyaz, Turkey [53]

56 (32 women), 28 cases

28 control

44.0 (10.2) case

43.7 (10.0) control

33.3 (3.7) case

34.8 (3.5) control

Skin fold

Total fat mass

Case

29.4 (7.2) kg

Control

33.6 (7.5) kg

−0.57 (−1.10- -0.03)

No

No

Shin pain

 Sabeti, Iran [50]

35 (gender not stated), 17 cases

18 control

21.1 (2.3) case

20.7 (2.5) control

21.7 (2.7) case

20.7 (2.2) control

BIA

Body fat percentage

Case

27.8 (7.2) %

Control

23.4 (5.8) %

0.68 (−0.02–1.34)

N/A

No

Foot pain

 Walsh, Australia [41]

88 (all women), 44 cases, 44 control

56.6 (10.3) case

56.7 (6.5) control

29.3 (9.9) case

27.6 (10.5) control

DXA

 

12.5 (5.1) kg/m2, 12.0 (4.9) kg/m2

0.10 (−0.32–0.52)

N/A

Yes

 Walsh, Australia [16]

1066

64.6 (10.3)

28.4 (5.1)

DXA

 

N/A

N/A

1.08 (1.04–1.12)

Yes

 Tanamas, Australia [40]

136 (114 women), 75 pain, 61 no pain

47.5 (9.2) pain

47.7 (8.8) no pain

35.1 (7.8) pain

28.4 (7.6) no pain

DXA

FMI

N/A

N/A

1.16 (1.06–1.28)

Yes

 Butterworth, Australia [42]

796 (all men), 177 pain, 619 no pain

68 (24–90)b pain

57 (25–98)b no pain

28.0 (4.3) pain

27.1 (3.8) no pain

DXA

N/A

N/A

1.08 (1.01–1.15)

Yes

  1. OR odds ratio, CI confidence interval, BMI body mass index, kg kilogram, m2 metres squared, DXA Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, FMI fat mass index, BIA bioelectrical impedance analysis, N/A not applicable
  2. aValues are mean (SD) unless otherwise stated
  3. bmedian (range)
  4. cmean (95% CI)
  5. dcross-sectional and longitudinal study
  6. eDuplicate study