Table 6 Data extraction for classification systems: Systems classifying by Screening Tool/Prediction Rule

Fritz et al. (2007) [64]

To identify if there is a subgroup of patients likely to respond to traction

Judgement and statistical approach.

LBP with signs of nerve root compression

Primary care.

>60 years old, red flags, previous spinal surgery in past 6 months, pregnancy, absence of symptoms when sitting.

Patients likely to benefit from traction have: leg symptoms; signs of nerve root compression; symptom peripheralization on extension movement; positive crossed SLR

Patient history and clinical examination

None.

Roach et al. (1997) [63]

To develop screening tests to place patients into a predetermined structure-based diagnostic classification system.

Judgemental and statistical approach.

Physiotherapy authorship.

LBP.

106 tertiary care patients.

Back pain treatment within last year,

history of back surgery, unconfirmed diagnosis at end of study.

1: Disk,

2: Spinal stenosis,

3: Disk disease with spinal stenosis

4: Benign low back pain.

Questionnaire

(Pain response to activity and position questionnaire).

Additional advanced diagnostic tools such as CT/MRI and lab work.

None.

Scholz et al. (2009) [62]

Test the utility of a tool (Standardized Evaluation of Pain (StePs)) to differentiate between radicular and axial pain.

Statistical approach.

Anesthesiology and Pharmacology authorship.

Chronic LBP.

Pain < 3 months, <18 years old, global pain intensity in week prior to recruitment <6 severe psychiatric or medical illness, another painful or neurological disease or local infection.

Axial low back pain.

Radicular low back pain.

Most discriminatory items for radicular pain: positive SLR, deficit in detection of cold and reduced response to pinprick

Also identified subtypes of radicular and axial LBP based on clusters of signs and symptoms.

Brief structured interview of 6 questions and 10 standardized physical tests.

Training in administering the tests in physical examination to assess cutaneous changes, pressure; pinprick; vibration; thermal sensitivity and proprioception.