Table 2 Therapeutic interventions for acute low-back pain (0–4 weeks)

NSAIDs [51-54]

Vertebral manipulations

Steroid epidural infiltration for radicular pain [53]

Physical agents (ice, heat, diathermy, ultrasounds) [58,59]

- Efficacy to ↓ pain = acetaminophen for all NSAIDs

- Efficacy > placebo [53]

- Efficacy > placebo or bed rest

- Efficacy > mobilisation for short term pain reduction [55]

- Efficacy = conservative treatment [56,57]

Muscle relaxants [53,60]

Exercises for disc herniation [42]

Analgesics [52–54]

Antidepressants [52,53,61]

-Efficacy of non-benzodiazepines > benzodiazepines; both with potential harm

- Efficacy of extension > flexion

- Non-opioids as efficacious as NSAIDs for pain relief

- Opioids: weak evidence of superiority to non-opioids

Combination relaxants + NSAIDs or analgesics [60]

Lumbar support [53]

Facet infiltrations [53]

- Efficacy > placebo

- Weak efficacy compared to no treatment

- Efficacy unknown compared to conventional therapies

- No efficacy for prevention

Advice to remain active [36,59]

Acupuncture [62,63]

Steroid epidural infiltration for non-radicular pain [53]

- Efficacy > conventional medical treatment

Steroid drugs [53]

Back schools [65]

McKenzie approach [66]

Massage [57,67]

Bed rest [53,64]

Exercises in flexion [42]

TENS [53,58,68]

- Weak efficacy compared to other treatments

- No efficacy in meta-analysis

Strengthening exercises [42]

Specific exercises [42]

Mechanical tractions [58,68,69]

Exercises in extension [42]