Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

Ahlqwist et al., 2008 [30]

a

Randomized controlled trial

To evaluate how 2 different treatment options affect perception of health, pain, and physical functioning over time among children and 0061dolescents with LBP

E1:23*

E1: back exercise program [(individualized physical therapy + exercise + self- training); (once a week, 12 weeks)] + back education + home exercise program (12 weeks; twice a week)

Age: 15 (13–18)

b

E2:22*

E2: self-training back exercise program (1-week; 3 times a weeks; 20 mins) + back education + home exercise program (12 weeks; 3 times a week). No individualized therapy

Age: 14 (12–17)

Clifford, 2009 [51]

a

Prospective longitudinal cohort

To examine the clinical utility of the treatment-based classification (TBC) system by comparing treatment outcomes in a sample of children and adolescents with LBP

E1:19*

E1:Stabilization

Age: 14.9 (12–17)

b

E2:11*

E2:Mobilization/Manipulation

Age: 14.9 (12–17)

c

E3:4*

E3: Specific exercise

Age: 14.9 (12–17)

Fanucchi et al., 2009 [31]

a

Randomized controlled trial

To investigate whether exercise is effective in reducing the intensity and three-month prevalence of LBP in 12–13 year old children, compared with a control group

E:39*

E: 8-week exercise program; 8 classes, 45–60 mins each (10–15 min = educational session; 40–45 mins = exercise session) + home exercise program

Age: 12.21 (12–13)

b

C:32*

C: without treatment

Age: 12.39 (12–13)

Fernandes et al., 2009 [50]

Case series

To evaluate the effect of a protocol of manual therapy on pain and lumbar mobility in adolescent athletes with LBP

E:18*

Protocol of therapy manual. Myofascial technique and stretching. 1 session

Age: (15–17)

Harringe et al., 2007 [47]

a

Clinical controlled trial

To evaluate a specific segmental muscle training program of the lumbar spine in order to prevent and reduce LBP in young teamgym gymnasts

E:15*

E: Specific muscle control exercises of the lumbar spine - the training program (8 week = week 5–12 of the study period)

Age: 13 (11–16)

b

C:4*

C: without treatment

Age: 14 (11–16)

Jones et al., 2007 [29]

a

Randomized controlled trial

To evaluate the efficacy of a specific exercise rehabilitation program as a treatment to treat recurrent nonspecific LBP in adolescents

E:27*

E: 8-week school-based exercise programme; 16 sessions (30 mins; twice a week). Combination of strength, flexibility, and aerobic exercises + home-based exercise

Age: 14.6 (14–15)

b

C:27*

C: without treatment

Age: 14.6 (14–15)

Perich et al., 2011 [49]

a

Clinical controlled trial

To determine whether a multi-dimensional treatment programme was effective in reducing the incidence of LBP and the associated levels of pain and disability in schoolgirl rowers

E: 33*

E: multidimensional programme [individualised exercise programme basaded on an individual musculoskeletal screening (week 1) + education session conducted by a physiotherapist (week 2) + follow up musculoskeletal screening sessions (weeks 3) + off-water-conditioning programme conducted by a Physical Education teacher (weeks 3–23)]

Age: (14–17)

b

C:42*

C: without treatment

Age: (14–17)

Thorpe et al., 2009 [48]

a

Clinical controlled trial

To determine the efficacy of a specific physical therapy treatment administered to adolescent female rowers with the aim of decreasing the prevalence of LBP and associated levels of pain and disability

E:10*

E: education session (1 session) + physical therapy exercise treatment (3 sessions) + physical conditioning program

Age: 13.9 (13–17)

b

C:8*

C: education session (1 session) + physical conditioning program

Age: 13.8 (13–17)